LIJDLR

Volume III Issue IV

CYBER DUE DILIGENCE IN MERGERS & ACQUISITIONS: THE OVERLOOKED RISK

Volume III Issue IV /

CYBER DUE DILIGENCE IN MERGERS & ACQUISITIONS: THE OVERLOOKED RISK Apoorva, LLM Student at Geeta Institute of Law (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.128 The research paper titled “Cyber Due Diligence in Mergers & Acquisitions: The Overlooked Risk” critically examines the growing significance of cybersecurity and data protection in corporate transactions. It highlights that in the digital era, data assets have become vital determinants of corporate value, yet cyber due diligence remains an underexplored area in mergers and acquisitions. The study analyzes how the absence of structured cybersecurity assessments exposes acquirers to legal, financial, and reputational liabilities. It explores India’s existing legal framework under the Information Technology Act, 2000 and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, revealing substantial regulatory gaps compared to international models like the EU’s GDPR and the U.S. SEC’s disclosure-based approach. The paper argues that integrating cyber due diligence into the M&A process is crucial for risk mitigation, corporate governance, and investor confidence. It further recommends legal reforms, contractual safeguards, and regulatory enforcement mechanisms to make cybersecurity assessment a statutory obligation. By drawing on global jurisprudence and Indian corporate practices, the research provides a comprehensive blueprint for embedding cyber risk governance within India’s M&A landscape, ensuring compliance, value preservation, and sustainable digital business integration.

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CORPORATE COMPLIANCE IN THE ERA OF DATA PROTECTION AND CYBERSECURITY LAWS

Volume III Issue IV /

CORPORATE COMPLIANCE IN THE ERA OF DATA PROTECTION AND CYBERSECURITY LAWS Rajat Sharma, LLM Student at Geeta Institute of Law (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.127 The digital transformation of corporate ecosystems has fundamentally reshaped compliance obligations, particularly in the domains of data protection and cybersecurity. This research paper titled “Corporate Compliance in the Era of Data Protection and Cybersecurity Laws” examines the evolving legal landscape governing corporate accountability in India under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, the Information Technology Act, 2000, and related regulatory frameworks. It explores how corporate governance, ethical responsibility, and fiduciary obligations intersect with data protection mandates, requiring businesses to adopt privacy-by-design and risk-based compliance systems. The study further analyses international frameworks such as the EU’s GDPR, UK Data Protection Act, 2018, and US sectoral models, comparing their influence on India’s compliance regime. Emphasis is placed on corporate liability, enforcement mechanisms, cybersecurity risk management, and cross-border data transfer obligations. The paper concludes that an integrated governance model-rooted in ethics, transparency, and accountability-is vital for sustaining trust and resilience in the digital economy. The research adopts a doctrinal methodology, using statutory interpretation, judicial precedents, and comparative legal analysis to propose reforms that strengthen compliance culture and align Indian corporate regulation with global data protection standards.

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PUNISHMENT VS. PREVENTION OF ACID ATTACKS: A STUDY OF DETERRENCE UNDER THE BHARATIYA NYAYA SANHITA, 2023 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO REHABILITATION OF SURVIVORS

Volume III Issue IV /

PUNISHMENT VS. PREVENTION OF ACID ATTACKS: A STUDY OF DETERRENCE UNDER THE BHARATIYA NYAYA SANHITA, 2023 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO REHABILITATION OF SURVIVORS Yashveena, Amity Law School, Amity University, Mohali, Punjab, (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.126 Acid attacks are one of the most severe forms of gender-based violence in India and causes severe harm to a survivor, both physically and psychologically and also causes a huge drain on the victims. Despite legislative reforms as well as judicial interventions, the continuing frequency of the attacks raises an important question on the current evaluation of the corrective framework, especially under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023. This paper raises the question as to whether the continuing debate between corrective (penal) and preventative strategies regarding acid violence is grounded on the adequacy, or else, of corrective provisions in the BNS. This study totally analyses through relative and doctrinal methodologies, statutory law, judicial precedents, and the applicable criminological propositions of deterrence. It places Indian legal responses within a wider transnational environment, drawing on relative perceptive.   The lesser part of the analysis is to be devoted to survivor recuperation and about differing the aspirational ideals of law with the practical challenges of victims, similar as systemic neglect, inadequate medical care, lengthy processes for compensation, and social ostracization. The exploration therefore aligns statutory provisions with their perpetration and hence demonstrates the gap between justice in proposition and justice in practice. It’s thus set up that although the corrective provisions have handed stronger legal frame under BNS, they’re still shy in the absence of inversely strong preventative- acquainted mechanisms similar as strict regulation of trade of acid, community alert, and comprehensive survivor-centered recuperation programs. The study thus concludes on the note that rehabilitation needs to be considered as a basic constitutional right under Article 21 and only that holistic, survivor-acquainted strategy, incorporating discipline, forestallment, and rehabilitation will achieve real justice over acid violence cases.  

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LEGITIMACY AT STAKE: HYBRID ACCOUNTABILITY IN GLOBAL JUSTICE

Volume III Issue IV /

LEGITIMACY AT STAKE: HYBRID ACCOUNTABILITY IN GLOBAL JUSTICE Abhishek Banerjee, Advocate at Delhi High Court (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.125 International justice doesn’t just belong to the courts anymore. While the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) once stood out as the main authorities for dealing with crimes and disputes, their reputations are not spotless. Critics point out that these courts struggle with bias, political pressure, and weak enforcement. They often fall short when it matters most. Meanwhile, non-state actors, global NGOs, and international media have stepped into the spotlight. They report atrocities, spark outrage, and shape conversations about justice. This paper examines how these very different players come together, building a messy but powerful system of accountability that goes far beyond traditional courtrooms. The ICC’s investigation into war crimes in Ukraine, the ICJ’s July 23, 2025, advisory opinion on climate justice, and the way NGOs and media team up to advance human rights. Using a comparative framework, this paper examine how these cases reveal tension between the official authority of institutions and the grassroots push for accountability. NGOs and the media have given more people a voice in the global justice debate, but their growing influence isn’t without problems-questions about bias, representation, and their own accountability are hard to ignore, we have to consider the whole ecosystem, crowded with all these actors. By theorizing this hybrid model, this paper highlights both the opportunities and the risks in shifting to a system where legitimacy itself is always up for debate- in courtrooms, in politics, and in public opinion.

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ACCOUNTABILITY AND LEGACY: ASSESSING THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA

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ACCOUNTABILITY AND LEGACY: ASSESSING THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA Nandani Kumari, LLM, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.124 The 1994 Rwandan genocide left a shattered society and raised urgent demands for accountability. The United Nations Security Council reacted by setting up the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by Resolution 955 of 8 November 1994 to try individuals most responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law committed during 1994. This paper looks at ICTR’s mandate, key jurisprudential outcomes (in particular Akayesu, Kambanda, Nahimana et al. and Bagosora), and the myriad difficulties it encountered – procedural delay, high cost, perceived selectivity, distance from victims geographically and culturally, and reconciliation limits. On the basis of legal documents, records of the tribunal and learned commentary, the research provides lessons for future international criminal instruments and makes some practical recommendations to improve timeliness, local incorporation and victim-centred construction. The paper concludes that ICTR’s legal contribution is substantive, but its operational constraints present some cautionary lessons for present and future accountability initiatives.

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THE EVOLUTION AND REGULATION OF E-COMMERCE IN INDIA: LEGAL FRAMEWORK, CHALLENGES, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

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THE EVOLUTION AND REGULATION OF E-COMMERCE IN INDIA: LEGAL FRAMEWORK, CHALLENGES, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Dr. Siddhant Chandra, Assistant professor at Xavier law school , Xavier University (Kolkata) Dhiraj Kumar Sharma, Student of B.A LL.B 9th semester, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.123 India’s e-commerce sector has emerged as one of the fastest-growing digital markets globally, with projections indicating exponential growth from USD 107.7 billion in 2024 to USD 650.4 billion by 2033. This transformative growth is driven by increasing internet penetration, widespread smartphone adoption, robust digital payment infrastructure exemplified by the Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and progressive government initiatives such as Digital India. However, this rapid expansion has necessitated the development of a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework to address multifaceted challenges including consumer protection, data privacy, intermediary liability, intellectual property rights infringement, and cross-border taxation complexities. This research article examines the evolution of e-commerce in India through the lens of its regulatory architecture, analyzing key legislations such as the Information Technology Act 2000, Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules 2020, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023. The study explores the dichotomy between marketplace and inventory-based business models, investigates emerging issues related to artificial intelligence-driven commerce, counterfeit goods proliferation, and cross-border transactions, and evaluates dispute resolution mechanisms including online dispute resolution platforms. Through doctrinal analysis and examination of judicial precedents, this article identifies critical gaps in the current regulatory framework and proposes recommendations for harmonizing consumer protection with innovation. The findings reveal that while India has established a progressive regulatory ecosystem, challenges persist in enforcement, platform accountability, and adapting to rapidly evolving technologies. The article concludes that a balanced approach integrating technological advancement with robust consumer safeguards is essential for sustainable e-commerce growth in India’s digital economy.

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THE IP PROTECTION IN AI SYSTEMS: LEGAL ANALYSIS OF COPYRIGHT, TRADEMARK AND PATENT LAW

Volume III Issue IV /

THE IP PROTECTION IN AI SYSTEMS: LEGAL ANALYSIS OF COPYRIGHT, TRADEMARK AND PATENT LAW Purti Sharma, Amity Law School, Amity University Noida, Uttar Pradesh (India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.122 Artificial Intelligence (AI) has significantly disrupted the conventional Intellectual Property (IP) laws and is presently considered as a novel source of creative and inventive contributions. The core problem originates from the fact that AI operates autonomously, thus, human authorship and creation are questioned along with issues of originality, ownership, and legal recognition. Both Indian and international statutory frameworks comprehend these issues through copyright, trademark, and patent law perspectives concerning AI, generated works and ideas. The foremost question in copyright law revolves around whether works created by AI can be considered as “original” and have an “author.” In order to determine the level of legal protection for works generated by machines, different legislations such as the U.S. Copyright Act of 1976, the Indian Copyright Act of 1957, and respective International Agreements are referred to. Artificial Intelligence, in effect, is a vital factor in branding strategies, in the generation of trade names, and in the evaluation of distinctiveness and the risk of confusion in trademark law. The change in technological viewpoint is noticeable in the provisions of the EU Trademark Regulations, the Lanham Act of 1946 (U.S.), and the Indian Trademarks Act of 1999 which deal with the issues of goodwill, consumer protection, and enforcement. Patent law is at a crossroad where questions of inventorship and novelty arise as a result of inventions created by or with the substantial involvement of AI. The Patents Act, 1970 (India), the U.S. Patent Act (35 U.S.C.), and The European Patent Convention (EPC) are the legislative instruments through which the discussions on whether AI can be recognized as an inventor are happening. The TRIPS Agreement (1995) serves as a basis for these talks at the international level. The primary goal is to determine whether the AI, IP law intersection is so complicated that it cannot be regulated by the existing legal frameworks alone and thus requires a reformed, specialized legal approach.

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IP IN OUTER SPACE: CHALLENGES RELATED TO OWNERSHIP OF INVENTIONS AND DATA ARISING FROM JOINT AND INTERNATIONAL SPACE MISSIONS

Volume III Issue IV /

IP IN OUTER SPACE: CHALLENGES RELATED TO OWNERSHIP OF INVENTIONS AND DATA ARISING FROM JOINT AND INTERNATIONAL SPACE MISSIONS Saniya Ansar, LLM (IP) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.121 The 21st century has witnessed an explosion of state and private actors in space with enormous possibilities for discovery and innovation. While on Earth, there are substantial systems of safeguarding intellectual property (IP), most IP systems are territorial, thus their applicability in outer space is a delicate subject. On a second, the emergence of greater international cooperation on missions also increases issues of joint ownership, and the joint launch, operation and maintenance of space assets between two or more states. This paper addresses the existing content of space law and its implications as it affects the protection of inventions made in space. It examines the unresolved issues of invention and data ownership in joint ventures such as the International Space Station, the Artemis Accords framework, and other international programs. It examines instruments such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Liability Convention (1972), and the ISS Intergovernmental Agreement to determine their weaknesses when it comes to dealing with IP issues. The paper concludes that the existing regime is insufficient to deal with inventions made in space and suggests that existing treaties should be amended to specifically include space-made inventions.

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THE FUTURE OF JUSTICE – ONLINE DISPUTE RESOLUTION IN INDIA

Volume III Issue IV /

THE FUTURE OF JUSTICE – ONLINE DISPUTE RESOLUTION IN INDIA Aastha Singh, Student, United University (India). Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.120 Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is a growing field with the potential to reshape how conflicts are settled. In India, ADR is becoming increasingly popular, which is helping courts lighten their heavy caseloads. The use of technology in dispute resolution is also changing the landscape by making the process faster and more accessible. With tech, parties in conflict can settle their disputes without needing to meet in person. These technological advancements are transforming how ADR works today. Some key developments in this area include Online Dispute Resolution (ODR), Virtual Reality (VR), Blockchain, and Artificial Intelligence tools. Among these, ODR has emerged as the most widely used innovation in tech driven ADR. This paper explores how ODR is currently used in India and takes a closer look at its legal framework, its practical use, and the challenges faced in putting it into practice.

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAW: INDIA’S PREPAREDNESS FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

Volume III Issue IV /

CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAW: INDIA’S PREPAREDNESS FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE Atul Singh, Lovely Professional University, School of Law, (Phagwara Punjab, India) Download Manuscript doi.org/10.70183/lijdlr.2025.v03.119 Climate change has been one of the most recurrent problems in the world in the last few decades. To cope with this problem, the countries have come together to make international agreements and national policies with focus on both reducing its effects and adapting to its ever-changing nature. The study examines climate governance, specifically focusing on India’s legal status and policy structures to ensure a sustainable future. The nation has made some good progress through constitutional provisions, statutory enactments, and judicial interventions, but its legal readiness is still weak and requires action. This study critically analyzes Indian legislation and statutory provisions with regards to climate change, assessing their adequacy when compared with global legal standards. It also makes it clear that climate change is not only an environmental problem but also a problem of justice, fairness, and human rights. The Study seeks to recommend legal reforms to create a robust and sustainable path for India by assessing current strengths, pinpointing policy deficiencies that are governing the current scenario, and drawing on comparative international experiences. This paper also stresses how traditional and indigenous practices are important for India, as they have been employed for centuries and have contributed to sustainable resource management, especially in agriculture sector. It highlights how Indian laws and policies can change to meet the needs of the country while also keeping up with new technologies.

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